Infrastructure × Inland Flooding
Our
infrastructure and utility systems are essential for day-to-day operations.
They provide reliable access to electricity, heating fuels, clean water,
telecommunications, transportation (of people and goods), and safe handling of
wastes.
Inland
flooding is the result of moderate precipitation over several days, intense
precipitation over a short period, or melting snowpack (U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit, 2017). This
accumulation of precipitation can also lead to dam or levee failure, or cause
river overflows. In short, more precipitation and/or freshwater enters a
community than the community’s stormwater systems and natural systems (such as
wetlands and rivers) can handle. Inland flooding is more common in low-lying
areas, adjacent to rivers or other bodies of water, and in developed areas
where water is less able to drain effectively.
Inland
flooding contributes to the three most urgent risks to infrastructure systems
in Massachusetts according to the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
damage to inland buildings, damage to electricity and utility distribution
systems, and damage to transit services (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 29). Inland flooding can also overwhelm and damage
septic, sewage, and wastewater systems, causing overflows of raw sewage that
could then spread bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. Stormwater drainage systems
and culverts that are not sized to accommodate larger storms, are more likely
to fail and cause flood damage as extreme precipitation events increase due to
climate change.
This guide will allow you to explore where inland flooding may damage
infrastructural systems, and what the ramifications might be for your community.
Our
infrastructure and utility systems are essential for day-to-day operations.
They provide reliable access to electricity, heating fuels, clean water,
telecommunications, transportation (of people and goods), and safe handling of
wastes.
Inland
flooding is the result of moderate precipitation over several days, intense
precipitation over a short period, or melting snowpack (U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit, 2017). This
accumulation of precipitation can also lead to dam or levee failure, or cause
river overflows. In short, more precipitation and/or freshwater enters a
community than the community’s stormwater systems and natural systems (such as
wetlands and rivers) can handle. Inland flooding is more common in low-lying
areas, adjacent to rivers or other bodies of water, and in developed areas
where water is less able to drain effectively.
Inland
flooding contributes to the three most urgent risks to infrastructure systems
in Massachusetts according to the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
damage to inland buildings, damage to electricity and utility distribution
systems, and damage to transit services (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 29). Inland flooding can also overwhelm and damage
septic, sewage, and wastewater systems, causing overflows of raw sewage that
could then spread bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. Stormwater drainage systems
and culverts that are not sized to accommodate larger storms, are more likely
to fail and cause flood damage as extreme precipitation events increase due to
climate change.
This guide will allow you to explore where inland flooding may damage
infrastructural systems, and what the ramifications might be for your community.
Questions to Answer
The questions and guided explorations below are designed to assist you with thinking about how inland flooding may impact infrastructure in your community. Use the Infrastructure x Inland Flooding worksheet to assist you when answering these questions.
The questions and guided explorations below are designed to assist you with thinking about how inland flooding may impact infrastructure in your community. Use the Infrastructure x Inland Flooding worksheet to assist you when answering these questions.
Inland
flooding compromises the safety and usability of our buildings, transportation,
energy, communication, drinking water, and waste systems. Bridges and roads may
become inundated, warp, and their foundations could weaken. It could also lead
to the overtopping of dams or dam failure. Flooding of energy
infrastructure—including power plants, transmission and distribution lines,
transformers, substations, and gas pipelines—can lead to power outages and gas
leaks.
Furthermore,
flood water can overwhelm stormwater systems and culverts, leading to more
flooding and damage to households, buildings, and other infrastructure. As
infrastructure becomes more prone to damage or failure, we will likely see
greater public safety risks, higher maintenance and replacement costs, and more
frequent transportation interruptions and closures—affecting the ability of
people to access jobs, schools, groceries, healthcare, and other critical
needs.
The Massachusetts
Climate Change Assessment has identified the consequences of inland flooding to
be a major problem for the state, especially for inland infrastructure. For
example, inland riverine flooding is expected to cause over $50 million in
annual damages to residential structures statewide by 2050 (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 57-58).
An
important first step in thinking about the impacts of flooding on infrastructure systems is
evaluating the kinds of systems used in your community. Where does flooding
occur because of an overwhelmed stormwater system or under-sized culvert? Which
critical roads experience flooding during a heavy rainfall? Alternatively,
which neighborhoods or communities have electrical substations that are located
within an area that is prone to flooding?
Guided Exploration:
This guided
exploration will use the GEAR Infrastructure Map to see where
inland flooding may threaten infrastructure in your community today or in the
future. While reviewing these areas, consider which infrastructure is most
critical for protecting people’s health, safety, and financial security in your
community. Open the map and select a municipality to begin.
Expand the Climate Hazard Layers group and turn on the Historic Flood Hazard Datasets. This will help identify areas that have historically been at risk of flooding in your community. Toggle on/off the various infrastructure data - the Dams and Power Plants layers, along with the Community Components and Transportation Layers groups – to see where there is overlap with flood zones. Also consider infrastructure that may not be presented on the mapping (e.g., culverts, septic tanks, wells, etc.).
- Which infrastructure is locally known to have flooding problems?
- Are there data gaps, in terms of knowing where some of this critical infrastructure is located?
- Are there ways to reduce impervious surface or restore natural wetlands or water systems to lessen the impacts?
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Damage to Electric Transmission and Distribution Infrastructure page 64 (top impact Statewide; Berkshires & Hilltowns; Greater Connecticut River Valley; Central; Eastern Inland; North & South Shores; Cape, Islands, & South Coast)
- Damage to Inland Buildings page 56 (top impact Statewide, Berkshires & Hilltowns, Greater Connecticut River Valley, Eastern Inland)
- Damage to Rails and Loss of Rail/Transit Service page 69 (top impact Statewide, Eastern Inland; Boston Harbor)
- Reduction in Clean Water Supply page A60 (top impact Berkshires & Hilltowns; Cape, Islands & South Coast)
- Increased Risk of Dam Overtopping or Failure page A82
Inland
flooding compromises the safety and usability of our buildings, transportation,
energy, communication, drinking water, and waste systems. Bridges and roads may
become inundated, warp, and their foundations could weaken. It could also lead
to the overtopping of dams or dam failure. Flooding of energy
infrastructure—including power plants, transmission and distribution lines,
transformers, substations, and gas pipelines—can lead to power outages and gas
leaks.
Furthermore,
flood water can overwhelm stormwater systems and culverts, leading to more
flooding and damage to households, buildings, and other infrastructure. As
infrastructure becomes more prone to damage or failure, we will likely see
greater public safety risks, higher maintenance and replacement costs, and more
frequent transportation interruptions and closures—affecting the ability of
people to access jobs, schools, groceries, healthcare, and other critical
needs.
The Massachusetts
Climate Change Assessment has identified the consequences of inland flooding to
be a major problem for the state, especially for inland infrastructure. For
example, inland riverine flooding is expected to cause over $50 million in
annual damages to residential structures statewide by 2050 (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 57-58).
An
important first step in thinking about the impacts of flooding on infrastructure systems is
evaluating the kinds of systems used in your community. Where does flooding
occur because of an overwhelmed stormwater system or under-sized culvert? Which
critical roads experience flooding during a heavy rainfall? Alternatively,
which neighborhoods or communities have electrical substations that are located
within an area that is prone to flooding?
Guided Exploration:
This guided
exploration will use the GEAR Infrastructure Map to see where
inland flooding may threaten infrastructure in your community today or in the
future. While reviewing these areas, consider which infrastructure is most
critical for protecting people’s health, safety, and financial security in your
community. Open the map and select a municipality to begin.
Expand the Climate Hazard Layers group and turn on the Historic Flood Hazard Datasets. This will help identify areas that have historically been at risk of flooding in your community. Toggle on/off the various infrastructure data - the Dams and Power Plants layers, along with the Community Components and Transportation Layers groups – to see where there is overlap with flood zones. Also consider infrastructure that may not be presented on the mapping (e.g., culverts, septic tanks, wells, etc.).
- Which infrastructure is locally known to have flooding problems?
- Are there data gaps, in terms of knowing where some of this critical infrastructure is located?
- Are there ways to reduce impervious surface or restore natural wetlands or water systems to lessen the impacts?
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Damage to Electric Transmission and Distribution Infrastructure page 64 (top impact Statewide; Berkshires & Hilltowns; Greater Connecticut River Valley; Central; Eastern Inland; North & South Shores; Cape, Islands, & South Coast)
- Damage to Inland Buildings page 56 (top impact Statewide, Berkshires & Hilltowns, Greater Connecticut River Valley, Eastern Inland)
- Damage to Rails and Loss of Rail/Transit Service page 69 (top impact Statewide, Eastern Inland; Boston Harbor)
- Reduction in Clean Water Supply page A60 (top impact Berkshires & Hilltowns; Cape, Islands & South Coast)
- Increased Risk of Dam Overtopping or Failure page A82
Infrastructure failures often
disproportionately impact those facing systemic inequality and magnify
vulnerability. Environmental justice and socially vulnerable populations are
disproportionately located in areas that are most vulnerable to damaging
flooding (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 60-61). Additionally,
environmental justice populations are more likely to live next to large and
small sources of pollution, waste, or hazardous materials like landfills,
highways, wastewater treatment plants, and fuel terminals (MA EJ Policy, 2021). Therefore, when it floods, communities in
these neighborhoods will likely be impacted first and hardest when toxins are
released and carried by flood waters.
Interruptions in public transit will more significantly impact people
who do not have access to a car or who are unable to drive a car, including
youth, older adults, people living with disabilities, and lower income
residents. Studies show that rental housing tends to be less energy-efficient
than owner-occupied housing; therefore, power or gas outages will have a
disproportionate effect on renters, in addition to older adults and people with
disabilities or who rely on electric power for medical devices (Carliner, 2013).
As
infrastructure becomes more prone to damage or failure, we will likely see
greater public safety risks, higher maintenance and replacement costs, and more
frequent transportation interruptions and closures. This affects the ability of
people to access jobs, schools, groceries, healthcare, and other critical
needs. Similarly, reliable access to electricity, heating fuel, clean water,
and communication systems is essential. Households and businesses rely on these
systems for everything from cooking to medication storage to working from home.
As you move into this next guided exploration, consider areas of your community
that are more prone to utility disruptions due to inland flooding, and how
these disruptions may magnify existing inequities or vulnerabilities in your
community.
Guided Exploration:
In the last
exploration you identified which areas of your community are vulnerable to
flooding during storms. This guided
exploration will consider which populations are facing disproportionate impacts
from flood-related infrastructure damage and service interruptions. Consider and discuss the following:
- What are the immediate and long-term impacts to the community members who live and work in flood-prone areas?
- Do residents, workers, and business owners have suggestions for how to respond to flooding?
- What supports might help residents and businesses prepare for a flooding event that closes roads, public transit, or leads to power outages?
- Which infrastructural systems have the biggest impact when they fail?
- Who is most impacted when these systems fail?
- What do those impacted identify as the top priorities for addressing those impacts?
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Health Effects of Extreme Storms and Power Outages page A21 (top impact Greater Connecticut River Valley; Cape, Islands, & South Coast)
Infrastructure failures often
disproportionately impact those facing systemic inequality and magnify
vulnerability. Environmental justice and socially vulnerable populations are
disproportionately located in areas that are most vulnerable to damaging
flooding (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 60-61). Additionally,
environmental justice populations are more likely to live next to large and
small sources of pollution, waste, or hazardous materials like landfills,
highways, wastewater treatment plants, and fuel terminals (MA EJ Policy, 2021). Therefore, when it floods, communities in
these neighborhoods will likely be impacted first and hardest when toxins are
released and carried by flood waters.
Interruptions in public transit will more significantly impact people
who do not have access to a car or who are unable to drive a car, including
youth, older adults, people living with disabilities, and lower income
residents. Studies show that rental housing tends to be less energy-efficient
than owner-occupied housing; therefore, power or gas outages will have a
disproportionate effect on renters, in addition to older adults and people with
disabilities or who rely on electric power for medical devices (Carliner, 2013).
As
infrastructure becomes more prone to damage or failure, we will likely see
greater public safety risks, higher maintenance and replacement costs, and more
frequent transportation interruptions and closures. This affects the ability of
people to access jobs, schools, groceries, healthcare, and other critical
needs. Similarly, reliable access to electricity, heating fuel, clean water,
and communication systems is essential. Households and businesses rely on these
systems for everything from cooking to medication storage to working from home.
As you move into this next guided exploration, consider areas of your community
that are more prone to utility disruptions due to inland flooding, and how
these disruptions may magnify existing inequities or vulnerabilities in your
community.
Guided Exploration:
In the last
exploration you identified which areas of your community are vulnerable to
flooding during storms. This guided
exploration will consider which populations are facing disproportionate impacts
from flood-related infrastructure damage and service interruptions. Consider and discuss the following:
- What are the immediate and long-term impacts to the community members who live and work in flood-prone areas?
- Do residents, workers, and business owners have suggestions for how to respond to flooding?
- What supports might help residents and businesses prepare for a flooding event that closes roads, public transit, or leads to power outages?
- Which infrastructural systems have the biggest impact when they fail?
- Who is most impacted when these systems fail?
- What do those impacted identify as the top priorities for addressing those impacts?
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Health Effects of Extreme Storms and Power Outages page A21 (top impact Greater Connecticut River Valley; Cape, Islands, & South Coast)
Investigate GEAR Map Data Layers
Explore the Infrastructure map to learn more about how inland flooding may impact infrastructure in your community. The list at the right provides an overview of select data layers included in the map, as well as a detailed description of each layer.
Explore the Infrastructure map to learn more about how inland flooding may impact infrastructure in your community. The list at the right provides an overview of select data layers included in the map, as well as a detailed description of each layer.
The National Flood Hazard Layer (NFHL) dataset represents the current effective flood risk data for those parts of the country where maps have been modernized by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
The FEMA Q3 layer identifies areas that have historically been at risk of flooding - this data is from flood insurance rate paper maps (FRMs) where no NFHL data exists. The data should be used to identify areas of uncertainty and areas with possible flood risk.
Town and City Halls are primary municipal executive offices in Massachusetts. They can provide many essential social services and play essential roles in furthering resilience planning and resilience building actions for their communities.
Childcare Centers provide care and educational services for their clients, but can also provide essential resources and information. For example, parents and guardians may rely on services which provide their child with social and emotional wellness, meals, and child supervision during work hours. This layer displays information from MassGIS.
Schools attended by students from
pre-kindergarten through high school provide educational services for those
students, but also provide essential resources and information. For example,
caregivers may rely on services which provide their child with social and
emotional wellness, meals, and before- and after-school care. Schools often
have a strong understanding of food insecurity and other challenges among their
student body. They may also play a role in emergency response.
Institutions of higher education are centers of
research and innovation, many of which have a strong connection to nearby
communities. Colleges and universities may play an essential role in
disseminating information, and may also serve as major employers in the
community.
Libraries can provide many services for communities,
including free access to computers and the internet. People access and attend
important resources and events at libraries, including tutoring support,
college preparatory support, job training support, accessibility tools, and
cultural events. Libraries often play a role in emergency response, such as serving
as cooling centers during heatwaves.
Places of worship, such as mosques, synagogues,
and churches, are important community centers that foster connection and
belonging. They may address housing insecurity and food insecurity (among
other challenges) for their congregants and other community members. Places of
worship often play a role in emergency response, such as serving as cooling
centers during heatwaves.
Fire stations are part of the network of critical infrastructure, particularly for emergency response. This MassGIS layer includes the location of 789 stations in the Commonwealth.
This layer shows the locations of
law enforcement and sheriff offices in Massachusetts, covering local, county
and state jurisdictions.
Dam hazard codes indicate the severity of hazards
presented to communities in case of dam failure. Most of the location
information was derived from historic data and has been ground-truthed against
inspection and ownership reports that are maintained by the MA DCR Office of
Dam Safety. The locations of some dams have not been confirmed.
This layer represents operable electric
generating plants with a capacity of 1 MW or more, and indicates the energy
source. This includes plants that are operating, on standby, or short- or
long-term out of service. Power stations are important because they help meet
rising energy demands, and impacts to power stations from climate hazards such
as flooding and extreme wind events could result in damage and service
interruptions.
Transportation
infrastructure is critical to the economy and social well-being of a region,
including a region's ability to respond in emergencies and recover from
disaster. Airports are particularly vulnerable to climate hazards such as
storms and high wind events.
This layer indicates ferry routes along the Massachusetts coast. Community members may rely on the routes for transportation to and from work, private property, and/or recreational opportunities. Areas near ferry stops may rely on consistent flow of passengers to support the local economy.
Travel by bike is a sustainable method of
transportation that can be utilized with appropriate bike lane infrastructure.
Some community members may rely on bicycle travel for work and other essential
activities, while others may engage with bicycle infrastructure for
recreational purposes.
This layer represents a
subset of the 'Trains' layer, focusing specifically on active freight routes,
which are essential to transporting goods around the Commonwealth.
This layer indicates rail infrastructure for MBTA trains. Communities rely on trains for transportation to work and recreation, and the transport of goods.
This layer represents a
subset of the 'Trains' layer, focusing on the rail linework for non-MBTA
passenger trains (AMTRAK and local recreational rides). These link passengers
through and beyond Commonwealth borders, or may be important for local
economies.
This layer represents bus
routes and stops within the MBTA public transit system. Transit routes allow
for affordable transportation to various sites and events, including health
care services, work, and social gatherings. Bus routes may experience
interruptions or cancellations in service as a result of climate hazards such
as extreme storm and heat events. Those who rely on bus routes would then face
significant transportation challenges. Bus stops in areas that experience urban
heat island effect pose health challenges for riders who experience long wait
times and/or are especially susceptible to the health impacts of high heat.
This layer contains all of
Massachusetts' Regional Transit Authority bus routes with the exception of the
MBTA. Transit routes allow for affordable transportation to various sites and
events, including health care services, work, and social gatherings. Bus routes
may experience interruptions or cancellations in service as a result of climate
hazards such as extreme storm and heat events as well as flooding. Those who
rely on bus routes would then face significant transportation challenges.
This layer represents all the public and many of the
private roadways in Massachusetts and includes designations for Interstate,
U.S. and State routes. Overlaying this information with layers that represent
where community members live can demonstrate what kinds of road access
different populations have; overlaying this information with layers that
provide projections of climate risks can demonstrate which roads might be most
vulnerable to impacts from flooding and other hazards.
Environmental justice (EJ) populations, i.e., block groups are defined in Chapter 8 of the Acts of 2021 and the 2021 EEA EJ Policy. EJ populations are those segments of the population that EEA has determined to be most at risk of being unaware of or unable to participate in environmental decision-making or to gain access to state environmental resources or are especially vulnerable. 2020 block groups, updated in Nov 2022.
Actions to Consider
Communities can take a number of steps to build resilience of infrastructure systems against inland flooding. Some actions may include:
Communities can take a number of steps to build resilience of infrastructure systems against inland flooding. Some actions may include:
Create a dedicated funding mechanism to pay for a community's stormwater management and flood resilience activities. Assess a user fee based upon how much stormwater runoff a property generates. Use the revenue generated from the fee to support stormwater-related services and improvements, and flood resilience and planning efforts. These include replacing aging infrastructure, maintaining existing systems, stormwater quality enhancement projects, projects that reduce flood risk to private and public infrastructure, and complying with regulatory requirements. Encourage property owners and developers to implement stormwater controls on their property to reduce the fee assessed. See the Metropolitan Area Planning Council's (MAPC) "Stormwater Financing/Utility Starter Kit" and the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission's guide on "Understanding Stormwater Utilities."
Promote the use of green infrastructure to become more resilient and bolster capacity to manage stormwater. Engage community members, businesses and downtown associations, and design professionals in a community-led process to identify opportunities for neighborhood-scale flood resilience planning. Implement these elements at various scales – site, neighborhood, and watershed or landscape scale. Include a rain barrel program for residents, plant trees along a street, or green an alleyway. Install green infrastructure elements in neighborhood parks. Promote the use of permeable pavers. Identify opportunities for pavement reduction initiatives. Daylight streams and protect large open natural spaces and riparian areas. Evaluate and improve floodplain management regulations, policies, and methods. Explore the following resources to learn more about how to implement green infrastructure for stormwater management in your community:
- Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC): A Vision for Green Infrastructure in the Region
- Pioneer Valley Planning Commission: Green Infrastructure Plan
- Green Infrastructure in the City of Boston
- Boston Water and Sewer Commission: Green Infrastructure and Low Impact Development
- Municipal implementation strategies:
Explore MVP Projects
Explore the MVP-funded projects below:
Explore the MVP-funded projects below:
FY22 Action Grant
$120,010 Award
This project in Dennis provided engineering, public outreach,
and permitting for the final phase drainage system improvements originating at
Route 28 and extending along Division Street and Chase Avenue to the Nantucket
Sound. The concept design for this final phase, located at Pound Pond,
addressed both water quality and flooding. The design utilized bioengineering
to enhance the natural system, stabilize shorelines and improve water quality,
as well as culvert daylighting to improve flood plain function and habitat
diversification.
Learn more: Dennis FY22 Pound Pond Flood Mitigation and Storm Drainage Improvements
FY22 Action Grant
$120,010 Award
This project in Dennis provided engineering, public outreach,
and permitting for the final phase drainage system improvements originating at
Route 28 and extending along Division Street and Chase Avenue to the Nantucket
Sound. The concept design for this final phase, located at Pound Pond,
addressed both water quality and flooding. The design utilized bioengineering
to enhance the natural system, stabilize shorelines and improve water quality,
as well as culvert daylighting to improve flood plain function and habitat
diversification.
Learn more: Dennis FY22 Pound Pond Flood Mitigation and Storm Drainage Improvements
FY20 Action Grant
$123,972
Award
This project conducted a regional assessment of the vulnerabilities of rural dirt roads due to climate change impacts. Once assessments and recommendations are made, they will be incorporated into a pilot project that will apply nature-based solutions to a rural dirt roadway, Weatogue Road, in Sheffield. This project included community outreach on the lessons learned across the three subject communities.
Project website: MVP Dirt Roads
Recommendations report: Rural Dirt Roads Assessment & Recommendations Report
Case study: Sheffield, New Marlborough, & Sandisfield FY20 Rural Dirt Road Vulnerability Assessment
FY20 Action Grant
$123,972
Award
This project conducted a regional assessment of the vulnerabilities of rural dirt roads due to climate change impacts. Once assessments and recommendations are made, they will be incorporated into a pilot project that will apply nature-based solutions to a rural dirt roadway, Weatogue Road, in Sheffield. This project included community outreach on the lessons learned across the three subject communities.
Project website: MVP Dirt Roads
Recommendations report: Rural Dirt Roads Assessment & Recommendations Report
Case study: Sheffield, New Marlborough, & Sandisfield FY20 Rural Dirt Road Vulnerability Assessment
FY21 Action Grant
$150,015 Award
This project will transform the City of Malden’s Department of Public Works yard on the Malden River for better climate change preparedness (as a key second responder for the city), and create a vibrant, resilient public riverfront park. Led by a new coalition of community leaders of color, youth, environmental advocates, and government stakeholders as the newly formed Malden River Works Steering Committee, this project put into place a community-led design process that will continue into the upcoming phase of design and engineering development.
Project website: Malden River Works for Waterfront Equity + Resilience
Additional materials: Project Presentation
Case study: Malden FY21 Malden River Works
FY21 Action Grant
$150,015 Award
This project will transform the City of Malden’s Department of Public Works yard on the Malden River for better climate change preparedness (as a key second responder for the city), and create a vibrant, resilient public riverfront park. Led by a new coalition of community leaders of color, youth, environmental advocates, and government stakeholders as the newly formed Malden River Works Steering Committee, this project put into place a community-led design process that will continue into the upcoming phase of design and engineering development.
Project website: Malden River Works for Waterfront Equity + Resilience
Additional materials: Project Presentation
Case study: Malden FY21 Malden River Works
Related Guides
Explore how inland flooding will impact the availability of affordable housing and lead to health effects from increased mold or accessibility issues.
Explore how inland flooding will impact the availability of affordable housing and lead to health effects from increased mold or accessibility issues.
Explore how the increasing frequency and severity of storms
is affecting infrastructure systems and how storms affect emergency response.
Explore how the increasing frequency and severity of storms
is affecting infrastructure systems and how storms affect emergency response.