Land Use × Coastal Flooding
Of the total population of 7 million in Massachusetts, 2.4 million people (34%) live in coastal communities (2020 US Census). Relative mean sea level is projected to rise up to 1.1 feet between 2000 and 2030, and up to 4.2 feet by 2070, across the Commonwealth’s coastline (ResilientMass Plan, 2023, p. 3-10).
Higher sea levels will cause regular (monthly or even daily) flooding, even without a storm (often called tidal, nuisance, or sunny day flooding), in some parts of coastal communities. At the same time, hurricanes and winter storms—combined with sea level rise—will result in higher storm surges and flooding during coastal storm events.
Coastal flooding may erode shorelines, create safety hazards, contaminate drinking water, damage infrastructure, homes, and businesses, and displace residents. Inland communities in Massachusetts may increasingly become destinations for people moving away from coastal areas (locally or globally). Displacement and relocation of populations in response to climate threats and related economic pressures is known as “climate migration.”
“Land use” policy refers to such guidelines as what can be built where and what types of requirements new development must follow. Whether you live in a rural, urban, or suburban area, land use policies can play a role in protecting against or adapting to coastal flooding, or in preparing for climate migration. This may include, for example, policies that protect open spaces or wetlands that mitigate flooding; new development standards for flood resilient buildings and infrastructure; and adapting zoning to limit development in high-risk areas and/or encourage development in areas with lower risk.
It is essential to understand how different land use patterns are
being impacted by coastal flooding, which types of land use help mitigate the
impacts of coastal flooding, and how to design land use policies to support
resilience. This understanding will allow us to respond to the impacts of
coastal flooding on communities and its members effectively.
Of the total population of 7 million in Massachusetts, 2.4 million people (34%) live in coastal communities (2020 US Census). Relative mean sea level is projected to rise up to 1.1 feet between 2000 and 2030, and up to 4.2 feet by 2070, across the Commonwealth’s coastline (ResilientMass Plan, 2023, p. 3-10).
Higher sea levels will cause regular (monthly or even daily) flooding, even without a storm (often called tidal, nuisance, or sunny day flooding), in some parts of coastal communities. At the same time, hurricanes and winter storms—combined with sea level rise—will result in higher storm surges and flooding during coastal storm events.
Coastal flooding may erode shorelines, create safety hazards, contaminate drinking water, damage infrastructure, homes, and businesses, and displace residents. Inland communities in Massachusetts may increasingly become destinations for people moving away from coastal areas (locally or globally). Displacement and relocation of populations in response to climate threats and related economic pressures is known as “climate migration.”
“Land use” policy refers to such guidelines as what can be built where and what types of requirements new development must follow. Whether you live in a rural, urban, or suburban area, land use policies can play a role in protecting against or adapting to coastal flooding, or in preparing for climate migration. This may include, for example, policies that protect open spaces or wetlands that mitigate flooding; new development standards for flood resilient buildings and infrastructure; and adapting zoning to limit development in high-risk areas and/or encourage development in areas with lower risk.
It is essential to understand how different land use patterns are
being impacted by coastal flooding, which types of land use help mitigate the
impacts of coastal flooding, and how to design land use policies to support
resilience. This understanding will allow us to respond to the impacts of
coastal flooding on communities and its members effectively.
Questions to Answer
The questions and guided explorations below are designed to assist you with thinking about how coastal flooding may impact different types of land use within your community. Use the Land Use x Coastal Flooding worksheet to assist you when answering these questions.
The questions and guided explorations below are designed to assist you with thinking about how coastal flooding may impact different types of land use within your community. Use the Land Use x Coastal Flooding worksheet to assist you when answering these questions.
Flooding
affects communities differently based on various factors such as topography,
land cover, flood management infrastructure, and the types of land use that are
in at-risk areas. For coastal
communities, it is important to understand which parts of the community are
most vulnerable to flooding now, and how that risk will increase over the
course of the coming century. The level of risk and the timeframe for that risk
will shape the resilience actions a community takes, such as protecting
neighborhoods, adapting infrastructure, or relocating specific activities or
land uses outside of flood risk areas.
For
example, flooding in residential areas can pose serious health and safety
risks, damage to housing, unsafe living conditions, and displacement. Flooded
commercial areas can result in business closures and decreased economic
activity, and flooded transportation areas can block safe movement of people
and goods. Regions high in potential pollutants, such as industrial compounds,
waste and sewage, and agricultural fertilizers, can experience leeching and
mobilization of these compounds as a result of changes in sea level rise and
flooding, with ramifications for public health. By contrast, parks and open
space or certain low density land uses (like parking garages or warehouses) may
be able to accommodate flooding (or be designed to accommodate flooding) with
much lower impact.
Guided Exploration:
This
exploration will look at which areas of your community are most at risk to
coastal flooding now, and in the coming decades, to consider the implications
of coastal flooding to those areas. Make sure to use your own knowledge of
where flooding occurs in your community in addition to the map exploration.
Open the GEAR Land Use Map and select a municipality. Expand the Climate Hazard Data group and turn on the Coastal Flooding layer group to view the Massachusetts Coast Flood Risk Model (MC-FRM) layers, which identify where coastal flooding from sea level rise and storm surge is expected to occur in 2030, 2050, and 2070. With this information, you might consider:
- Which areas of your community are most vulnerable to flooding in the near-term?
- Which areas of your community will become increasingly vulnerable to flooding in the coming decades?
Next, turn on the Land Cover/Land Use group to view layers showing different land use types. What types of land use are going to be most impacted by sea level rise and storm surge in your community?
- How much of the projected flooding areas are residential? What is the nature of the affected housing?
- Expand the EJ and Other Priority Populations group, scroll to the bottom, and toggle between the Rental Housing Units and Housing Cost Burden (Renters) layers to consider where there may be higher concentrations of renters and people with high housing costs relative to their income. These areas likely include people who have less access to resources for flood-proofing or are unable to make modifications to their homes because they do not own them.
- Turn on the Age of Housing Stock layer to consider how old the homes are in your community. Where are the oldest ones? What factors might need to be considered for reducing flood risk for old or historic homes?
- How much of the projected flooding areas are commercial?
- What businesses and services would be affected by coastal flooding in your community in the near-term?
- Is there a concentration of small businesses which may have less capacity to bounce back from severe damage or property loss?
- How might coastal flooding affect your downtown or commercial areas in fifty years?
- How much of the projected flooding areas are industrial?
- What types of industries would be affected by coastal flooding in your community?
- What are the implications of flooding on those facilities? Are there chemicals or hazardous waste materials that could be released? Find more information about climate preparedness and chemical safety here.
- How much of the projected flooding areas are recreation or protected natural lands?
- Is there a buffer of natural land cover between areas vulnerable to coastal flooding and developed areas?
Flooding
affects communities differently based on various factors such as topography,
land cover, flood management infrastructure, and the types of land use that are
in at-risk areas. For coastal
communities, it is important to understand which parts of the community are
most vulnerable to flooding now, and how that risk will increase over the
course of the coming century. The level of risk and the timeframe for that risk
will shape the resilience actions a community takes, such as protecting
neighborhoods, adapting infrastructure, or relocating specific activities or
land uses outside of flood risk areas.
For
example, flooding in residential areas can pose serious health and safety
risks, damage to housing, unsafe living conditions, and displacement. Flooded
commercial areas can result in business closures and decreased economic
activity, and flooded transportation areas can block safe movement of people
and goods. Regions high in potential pollutants, such as industrial compounds,
waste and sewage, and agricultural fertilizers, can experience leeching and
mobilization of these compounds as a result of changes in sea level rise and
flooding, with ramifications for public health. By contrast, parks and open
space or certain low density land uses (like parking garages or warehouses) may
be able to accommodate flooding (or be designed to accommodate flooding) with
much lower impact.
Guided Exploration:
This
exploration will look at which areas of your community are most at risk to
coastal flooding now, and in the coming decades, to consider the implications
of coastal flooding to those areas. Make sure to use your own knowledge of
where flooding occurs in your community in addition to the map exploration.
Open the GEAR Land Use Map and select a municipality. Expand the Climate Hazard Data group and turn on the Coastal Flooding layer group to view the Massachusetts Coast Flood Risk Model (MC-FRM) layers, which identify where coastal flooding from sea level rise and storm surge is expected to occur in 2030, 2050, and 2070. With this information, you might consider:
- Which areas of your community are most vulnerable to flooding in the near-term?
- Which areas of your community will become increasingly vulnerable to flooding in the coming decades?
Next, turn on the Land Cover/Land Use group to view layers showing different land use types. What types of land use are going to be most impacted by sea level rise and storm surge in your community?
- How much of the projected flooding areas are residential? What is the nature of the affected housing?
- Expand the EJ and Other Priority Populations group, scroll to the bottom, and toggle between the Rental Housing Units and Housing Cost Burden (Renters) layers to consider where there may be higher concentrations of renters and people with high housing costs relative to their income. These areas likely include people who have less access to resources for flood-proofing or are unable to make modifications to their homes because they do not own them.
- Turn on the Age of Housing Stock layer to consider how old the homes are in your community. Where are the oldest ones? What factors might need to be considered for reducing flood risk for old or historic homes?
- How much of the projected flooding areas are commercial?
- What businesses and services would be affected by coastal flooding in your community in the near-term?
- Is there a concentration of small businesses which may have less capacity to bounce back from severe damage or property loss?
- How might coastal flooding affect your downtown or commercial areas in fifty years?
- How much of the projected flooding areas are industrial?
- What types of industries would be affected by coastal flooding in your community?
- What are the implications of flooding on those facilities? Are there chemicals or hazardous waste materials that could be released? Find more information about climate preparedness and chemical safety here.
- How much of the projected flooding areas are recreation or protected natural lands?
- Is there a buffer of natural land cover between areas vulnerable to coastal flooding and developed areas?
Both
coastal and inland communities can plan for the impacts of coastal
flooding. Through land use policy and development guidelines, coastal
communities can adapt to and protect against coastal flooding, while inland
communities can plan for potential population growth due to climate migration –
including greater needs for housing, community services, and pressure on existing
public infrastructure (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 117).
Land use
and zoning revisions may be necessary in both instances. Natural ecosystems
which mitigate the impacts of flooding may need to be protected as well as
enhanced, to serve as buffers between coastal flooding and developed areas.
Infrastructure that is exposed to coastal flooding may need to be relocated or
adapted. Inland communities may need to be ready for additional population growth
as some folks move away from the coast. Changes to codes and policies will need
to consider the climate impacts beyond coastal flooding, such as heat and
inland flooding. Prioritizing natural ecosystems and nature-based solutions are important and effective ways to bring about smart growth. Smart growth is development that protects natural
resources, enhances quality of life, offers housing choices, reduces energy
consumption, and improves municipal finances by considering the location,
design, and long-term costs of development.
Actions communities might undertake to adapt to coastal flooding impacts are outlined in the below section – Actions to Consider – towards the end of this guide.
Guided Exploration:
This
exploration is designed to encourage you to think about how land use planning tools
can guide more resilient development in coastal communities, and/or help inland
communities plan for population growth in consideration of climate migration
and other factors.
Based on
the exploration above, consider and discuss how your community might adjust how you plan for,
construct, and regulate development to reduce future risks created from coastal
flooding:
- Are there some areas that could limit new development? Allow only certain types of development? Or only development built to specific flood resilience standards?
- What
types of public infrastructure investments will be needed to support zoning
adjustments, and how might expenditures (costs) change over time? -- For
example, zoning codes could be updated to require elevated buildings at a
designated minimum distance above base flood elevation. This would require
upfront costs from new construction methods and materials but could create many
long-term benefits and avoid future costs from flood damage.
- Which
areas of your community may be best suited for more development or more dense
development outside of current and projected flood risk areas? How can zoning
and other land use policies support that growth?
- Do
your community's existing community/regional planning documents (e.g., master
plan, open space plan, etc.) consider current and future coastal flooding due
to climate change? How do, or how could, this be further enhanced? Do the plans
consider how populations may shift in your municipality or region due to
climate migration and how to plan for that shift? If not, when are these plans
due for updates?
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Increase in Costs of Responding to Climate Migration page 117 (top impact Statewide; Berkshires & Hilltowns; Greater Connecticut River Valley; Central; Eastern Inland; North & South Shores)
- Reduction in State and Municipal Revenues page 113 (top impact Statewide; Greater Connecticut River Valley; Boston Harbor; North & South Shores; Cape, Islands, & South Coast)
- Increase in Need for State and Municipal Expenditures on Policy Review and Adaptation Coordination page A113
Both
coastal and inland communities can plan for the impacts of coastal
flooding. Through land use policy and development guidelines, coastal
communities can adapt to and protect against coastal flooding, while inland
communities can plan for potential population growth due to climate migration –
including greater needs for housing, community services, and pressure on existing
public infrastructure (MCCA, 2022, Volume II, p. 117).
Land use
and zoning revisions may be necessary in both instances. Natural ecosystems
which mitigate the impacts of flooding may need to be protected as well as
enhanced, to serve as buffers between coastal flooding and developed areas.
Infrastructure that is exposed to coastal flooding may need to be relocated or
adapted. Inland communities may need to be ready for additional population growth
as some folks move away from the coast. Changes to codes and policies will need
to consider the climate impacts beyond coastal flooding, such as heat and
inland flooding. Prioritizing natural ecosystems and nature-based solutions are important and effective ways to bring about smart growth. Smart growth is development that protects natural
resources, enhances quality of life, offers housing choices, reduces energy
consumption, and improves municipal finances by considering the location,
design, and long-term costs of development.
Actions communities might undertake to adapt to coastal flooding impacts are outlined in the below section – Actions to Consider – towards the end of this guide.
Guided Exploration:
This
exploration is designed to encourage you to think about how land use planning tools
can guide more resilient development in coastal communities, and/or help inland
communities plan for population growth in consideration of climate migration
and other factors.
Based on
the exploration above, consider and discuss how your community might adjust how you plan for,
construct, and regulate development to reduce future risks created from coastal
flooding:
- Are there some areas that could limit new development? Allow only certain types of development? Or only development built to specific flood resilience standards?
- What
types of public infrastructure investments will be needed to support zoning
adjustments, and how might expenditures (costs) change over time? -- For
example, zoning codes could be updated to require elevated buildings at a
designated minimum distance above base flood elevation. This would require
upfront costs from new construction methods and materials but could create many
long-term benefits and avoid future costs from flood damage.
- Which
areas of your community may be best suited for more development or more dense
development outside of current and projected flood risk areas? How can zoning
and other land use policies support that growth?
- Do
your community's existing community/regional planning documents (e.g., master
plan, open space plan, etc.) consider current and future coastal flooding due
to climate change? How do, or how could, this be further enhanced? Do the plans
consider how populations may shift in your municipality or region due to
climate migration and how to plan for that shift? If not, when are these plans
due for updates?
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Increase in Costs of Responding to Climate Migration page 117 (top impact Statewide; Berkshires & Hilltowns; Greater Connecticut River Valley; Central; Eastern Inland; North & South Shores)
- Reduction in State and Municipal Revenues page 113 (top impact Statewide; Greater Connecticut River Valley; Boston Harbor; North & South Shores; Cape, Islands, & South Coast)
- Increase in Need for State and Municipal Expenditures on Policy Review and Adaptation Coordination page A113
Investigate GEAR Map Data Layers
Explore the Land Use map to learn more about how coastal flooding may impact different types of land use within your community. The list at the right provides an overview of select data layers included in the map, as well as a detailed description of each layer.
Explore the Land Use map to learn more about how coastal flooding may impact different types of land use within your community. The list at the right provides an overview of select data layers included in the map, as well as a detailed description of each layer.
As sea levels rise, communities can benefit from understanding when, where, and how coastal flooding from sea level rise and storm surge may occur. This layer provides extents of flooding for the 1% annual exceedance probability for 2030, 2050, and 2070 (i.e. the extent that floodwaters will reach during a 1 in 100 chance for any given storm event).
As
sea levels rise, communities can benefit from understanding when, where, and
how coastal flooding from sea level rise and storm surge may occur. This layer
provides extents of flooding for the 0.1% annual exceedance probability for
2030, 2050, and 2070 (i.e. the extent that flood waters will reach during a
0.1% event, or a 1 in 1000 chance for any given storm event).
As hurricanes become more intense, communities can benefit
from understanding how storms could inundate their coastlines. This layer
represents worst-case Hurricane Surge Inundation areas for Category 1 through 4
hurricanes striking the coast of Massachusetts, based on thousands of modeled
combinations of hurricane intensity (Category 1-4), forward speed, track or
direction, and other factors not including sea level rise. NOAA’s National
Hurricane Center, in partnership with the United States Army Corps of
Engineers, uses the Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from Hurricanes (SLOSH)
model to calculate the storm surge heights and map coastal areas with the
highest degree of exposure.
This subset of the MassGIS 2016 Land Cover/Land Use data shows areas with general residential land use codes and includes a breakdown of single-family and multi-family housing. Multi-unit housing may be more vulnerable to climate impacts because they may be more likely to contain rental units versus owner-occupied units, which limit inhabitants' ability to make updates and retrofits that build resilience. Multi-unit housing units may be more affordably-priced housing for those with limited incomes, such that residents may face financial insecurity and other challenges.
This subset of the MassGIS 2016 Land Cover/Land Use data shows areas with commercial or mixed land use. Commercial areas may be able to provide resources, but if they are affected by a hazard, it may have economic impacts.
This subset of the MassGIS 2016 Land Cover/Land Use data shows areas with industrial land use. Climate impacts on these areas may have economic or ecological implications.
Tree canopy is an important asset in mitigating
climate hazards. As temperatures continue to rise, tree canopies provide shade,
which reduces the land surface temperatures and mitigates urban heat islands.
Impervious surfaces
influence surface land temperatures and flood storage capacity. Removing
impervious surfaces can prevent potentially deadly illnesses, lower energy
costs to cool buildings, and reduce flood risks, by providing cooling benefits
as well as preventing flooding.
32 major watersheds cover Massachusetts.
Watersheds channel precipitation to associated creeks, streams, rivers, and
outflow points (such as reservoirs, bays, and oceans). When polluted water
enters the watershed, the pollution may flow to downstream waterbodies. Drought
across a watershed significantly reduces available water for people as
well as natural ecosystems.
This layer identifies hydrographic
(water-related) features, including surface water (lakes, ponds, and reservoirs),
wetlands, bogs, flats, rivers, and streams.
This layer contains the most current release of data from the American Community Survey (ACS) about housing units by year built by tenure (owner or renter). Older homes may be more vulnerable to climate impacts because of formerly lower wind standards, aging materials, lack of weatherproofing, among other factors. ACS 2017 - 2021.
Environmental justice (EJ) populations, i.e., block groups are defined in Chapter 8 of the Acts of 2021 and the 2021 EEA EJ Policy. EJ populations are those segments of the population that EEA has determined to be most at risk of being unaware of or unable to participate in environmental decision-making or to gain access to state environmental resources or are especially vulnerable. 2020 block groups, updated in Nov 2022.
Actions to Consider
Communities can take a number of steps to build resilience to the impacts of coastal flooding. Some actions may include:
Communities can take a number of steps to build resilience to the impacts of coastal flooding. Some actions may include:
Floodplain Overlay Districts can support community resilience by setting forth certain requirements for development within areas vulnerable to flooding. Utilize coastal flood models, climate studies, and related plans to inform the geographic extent, purpose, and requirements for a Floodplain Overlay District. Draft regulatory language and invite review and comment by the public and planning board; engage an attorney to review draft language. For example, Winthrop adopted regulatory language that allows existing building in floodplains to exceed zoning height limits to elevate up to 3 feet beyond building code requirements. Work with your planning board and Town Meeting or City Council to adopt final regulations. See the Metropolitan Area Planning Council's (MAPC) "Climate Resilient Land Use Strategies Tool Kit" for regulatory language and policy examples.
At what point in the future should the most vulnerable portions of the municipality move away from flood waters, accommodate the flooding, or protect against them? A coastal resiliency plan could identify the public costs and benefits that communities will need to consider when evaluating management options for coastal parcels. This plan may include a cost-benefit analysis to identify future conditions when costs are expected to outweigh benefits, so the communities have a basis for making key public service decisions, such as: which properties to acquire or restore as flood storage, whether to raise access roads, provide emergency services or utilities, and identify and prioritize the most at-risk sections of town. This plan will provide communities with a basis to develop a set of guiding principles and policies that will allow the community to proactively reduce vulnerabilities in these areas from an economic standpoint. This plan may also include actions related to changing zoning to rebuild in a more resilient way after a catastrophic event or designating no-build areas. This process will require a robust community outreach and engagement process.
Explore this "Building Resilience in Coastal Communities" toolkit from Climate.gov, as well as the Plum Island and Marshfield case studies below to learn more.
Explore MVP Projects
Explore the MVP-funded projects below:
Explore the MVP-funded projects below:
FY20 Action Grant
$217,541 Award
This project in Newbury & Newburyport identified the public costs and benefits that both communities would need to consider in order to evaluate management options for Plum Island and plan for the island's future.
Project website: Plum Island | Exploring the Fiscal Implications of Sea Level Rise
Final report: Newbury & Newburyport FY20 Plum Island - Exploring the Fiscal and Economic Implications of Sea Level Rise
FY20 Action Grant
$217,541 Award
This project in Newbury & Newburyport identified the public costs and benefits that both communities would need to consider in order to evaluate management options for Plum Island and plan for the island's future.
Project website: Plum Island | Exploring the Fiscal Implications of Sea Level Rise
Final report: Newbury & Newburyport FY20 Plum Island - Exploring the Fiscal and Economic Implications of Sea Level Rise
FY22 Action Grant
$78,030 Award
This Marshfield project proactively addresses
future coastal flooding and erosion risks by developing a long-term coastal
resiliency plan. The plan was guided by the best available climate change data;
identified and prioritized the most at-risk benefit cost analysis; and developed a set of
guiding principles and recommended zoning policies that will allow the Town to
proactively reduce vulnerabilities in these areas, and if necessary, rebuild in
a more resilient way after a catastrophic event.
Project Website: Town of Marshfield | MVP Action Grant - Long Term Coastal Resiliency Plan
Case Study: Marshfield FY22 Long-term Coastal Resiliency Plan
FY22 Action Grant
$78,030 Award
This Marshfield project proactively addresses
future coastal flooding and erosion risks by developing a long-term coastal
resiliency plan. The plan was guided by the best available climate change data;
identified and prioritized the most at-risk benefit cost analysis; and developed a set of
guiding principles and recommended zoning policies that will allow the Town to
proactively reduce vulnerabilities in these areas, and if necessary, rebuild in
a more resilient way after a catastrophic event.
Project Website: Town of Marshfield | MVP Action Grant - Long Term Coastal Resiliency Plan
Case Study: Marshfield FY22 Long-term Coastal Resiliency Plan
FY18 Action Grant
$250,000
Award
The
Boston Planning and Development Agency and Boston Environment Department established
a future sea level rise zoning layer with urban design guidelines for
reconstruction, retrofits in historic districts, district level flooding
interventions, and requirements for new construction through a community
engagement process.?
Learn more: The City of Boston | Coastal Flood Resilience Design Guidelines
FY18 Action Grant
$250,000
Award
The
Boston Planning and Development Agency and Boston Environment Department established
a future sea level rise zoning layer with urban design guidelines for
reconstruction, retrofits in historic districts, district level flooding
interventions, and requirements for new construction through a community
engagement process.?
Learn more: The City of Boston | Coastal Flood Resilience Design Guidelines
FY18 Action Grant
$149,825
Award
The
Town of Holyoke partnered with a bilingual consulting team to gather a detailed
demographic analysis of individuals who arrived in the Town from Puerto Rico
because of Hurricane Maria. In-person interviews were conducted with local
social service providers, local politicians, local governmental agencies, and
state/federal agencies to determine the ground rules for what transpired during
and after Holyoke’s response to Maria. This produced an institutional analysis
and checklist of steps that communities need to implement to be more prepared
for accommodating climate migrants.
Learn more: Holyoke FY18 Anticipated Vulnerabilities: Displacement and Migration in the Age of Climate Change
FY18 Action Grant
$149,825
Award
The
Town of Holyoke partnered with a bilingual consulting team to gather a detailed
demographic analysis of individuals who arrived in the Town from Puerto Rico
because of Hurricane Maria. In-person interviews were conducted with local
social service providers, local politicians, local governmental agencies, and
state/federal agencies to determine the ground rules for what transpired during
and after Holyoke’s response to Maria. This produced an institutional analysis
and checklist of steps that communities need to implement to be more prepared
for accommodating climate migrants.
Learn more: Holyoke FY18 Anticipated Vulnerabilities: Displacement and Migration in the Age of Climate Change
Related Guides
Explore how coastal flooding
will cause service disruptions and damage to various infrastructural
systems.
Explore how coastal flooding
will cause service disruptions and damage to various infrastructural
systems.
Explore how coastal flooding limits coastal ecosystems’
ability provide ecosystem services, including protection against climate change
impacts.
Explore how coastal flooding limits coastal ecosystems’
ability provide ecosystem services, including protection against climate change
impacts.