Land Use × Heat
Highly developed areas are typically warmer than less developed areas at any given time. This is referred to as the urban heat island effect, which is intensifying with our changing climate (EPA, 2022). Increased heat threatens the health of natural infrastructure in our communities (like street trees and green spaces such as parks, waterways, and trails,) which are some of the most effective tools to reduce the urban heat island effect. Heat island effect can also be felt outside of big cities since it describes a relative difference in temperature between more and less developed areas. In both rural and urban communities, excess heat can degrade ecosystems and spaces that are important for recreation, culture, and the regional economy.
Some land use types (e.g., Commercial, Industrial, Residential) have denser concentrations of pavement, buildings, and other impervious surfaces, which absorb and retain heat. These land use types experience extreme heat more noticeably than land use types which contain vegetation, soils, and water systems that provide temperature moderation.
“Land use” policy refers to such guidelines as what can be built where and what types of requirements new development must follow. Whether you live in a rural, urban, or suburban area, land use policies can play a role in reducing the effects of high heat in your community. This may include, for example, policies that protect forests, wetlands, or open space; that integrate shade trees and other vegetation into the design of parking lots; or that guide new developments in using “cool materials” and protecting existing trees and wetlands. When thinking about climate resilience, it's important to consider not only how land is used in your community, but also the land use patterns at regional scales.
The questions below will have you consider which ecosystems
in your community support cooling and could be protected or restored to reduce
the negative impacts of rising temperatures associated with climate change,
including urban heat island effect. Additionally, the “Actions to Consider” at
the end of this Guide will explore how land use planning and zoning
modifications can promote climate adaptation.
Highly developed areas are typically warmer than less developed areas at any given time. This is referred to as the urban heat island effect, which is intensifying with our changing climate (EPA, 2022). Increased heat threatens the health of natural infrastructure in our communities (like street trees and green spaces such as parks, waterways, and trails,) which are some of the most effective tools to reduce the urban heat island effect. Heat island effect can also be felt outside of big cities since it describes a relative difference in temperature between more and less developed areas. In both rural and urban communities, excess heat can degrade ecosystems and spaces that are important for recreation, culture, and the regional economy.
Some land use types (e.g., Commercial, Industrial, Residential) have denser concentrations of pavement, buildings, and other impervious surfaces, which absorb and retain heat. These land use types experience extreme heat more noticeably than land use types which contain vegetation, soils, and water systems that provide temperature moderation.
“Land use” policy refers to such guidelines as what can be built where and what types of requirements new development must follow. Whether you live in a rural, urban, or suburban area, land use policies can play a role in reducing the effects of high heat in your community. This may include, for example, policies that protect forests, wetlands, or open space; that integrate shade trees and other vegetation into the design of parking lots; or that guide new developments in using “cool materials” and protecting existing trees and wetlands. When thinking about climate resilience, it's important to consider not only how land is used in your community, but also the land use patterns at regional scales.
The questions below will have you consider which ecosystems
in your community support cooling and could be protected or restored to reduce
the negative impacts of rising temperatures associated with climate change,
including urban heat island effect. Additionally, the “Actions to Consider” at
the end of this Guide will explore how land use planning and zoning
modifications can promote climate adaptation.
Questions to Answer
The questions and guided explorations below are designed to assist you with thinking about how heat may impacts different types of land use within your community. Use the Land Use x Heat worksheet to assist you when answering these questions.
The questions and guided explorations below are designed to assist you with thinking about how heat may impacts different types of land use within your community. Use the Land Use x Heat worksheet to assist you when answering these questions.
Land and water ecosystems (even small, urban ones) such as
parks, trails, tree canopy, and lakes cool their surroundings (through a
process known as evapotranspiration.
Trees also provide the added benefit of shade. On especially warm days,
developed areas experience higher temperatures than less developed areas
because our impervious infrastructure, such as buildings and roads, absorb and
re-emit heat more than natural infrastructure does (EPA, 2022).
We experience this phenomenon when we notice the temperature difference between
walking through a tree-lined park versus walking across a parking lot.
Guided Exploration
Considering the various land use types in your community, the
types of land cover, and the amount of tree canopy, is a way to identify how
different neighborhoods and regions of your community will experience increased
heat.
Open the GEAR Land Use Map and select a municipality to visualize which land use types are found in your community.
- Expand the Climate Hazard Data group and turn on the Hot Spots layer. Then turn on the Land Cover/Land Use group to see the Land Use Layers and consider whether certain land use types associated with higher relative heat (e.g., Commercial/Mixed-Use, Industrial)?
- Next, consider which land use types in your community are associated with cooler temperatures.
- You might turn off Land Use Layers, and instead look at Forest Land Cover and MassDEP Wetlands (under the Water Features group) to see where you might find pocket parks and shaded areas that provide cooling in developed areas.
- Activating the Protected and Recreational Open Space group can provide information on whether an ecosystem area is publicly accessible or privately held.
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts
Climate Change Assessment:
- Loss of Urban Tree Cover page A43 (top impact Central, Boston Harbor)
Land and water ecosystems (even small, urban ones) such as
parks, trails, tree canopy, and lakes cool their surroundings (through a
process known as evapotranspiration.
Trees also provide the added benefit of shade. On especially warm days,
developed areas experience higher temperatures than less developed areas
because our impervious infrastructure, such as buildings and roads, absorb and
re-emit heat more than natural infrastructure does (EPA, 2022).
We experience this phenomenon when we notice the temperature difference between
walking through a tree-lined park versus walking across a parking lot.
Guided Exploration
Considering the various land use types in your community, the
types of land cover, and the amount of tree canopy, is a way to identify how
different neighborhoods and regions of your community will experience increased
heat.
Open the GEAR Land Use Map and select a municipality to visualize which land use types are found in your community.
- Expand the Climate Hazard Data group and turn on the Hot Spots layer. Then turn on the Land Cover/Land Use group to see the Land Use Layers and consider whether certain land use types associated with higher relative heat (e.g., Commercial/Mixed-Use, Industrial)?
- Next, consider which land use types in your community are associated with cooler temperatures.
- You might turn off Land Use Layers, and instead look at Forest Land Cover and MassDEP Wetlands (under the Water Features group) to see where you might find pocket parks and shaded areas that provide cooling in developed areas.
- Activating the Protected and Recreational Open Space group can provide information on whether an ecosystem area is publicly accessible or privately held.
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts
Climate Change Assessment:
- Loss of Urban Tree Cover page A43 (top impact Central, Boston Harbor)
As with many climate impacts, urban heat islands affect some
neighborhoods more than others.
According to a US-wide study conducted by The Nature Conservancy, high-income neighborhoods are likely to
have 15% more tree cover and be about 1.5°C cooler than low-income
neighborhoods. The 2022 Massachusetts
Climate Change Assessment found that environmental justice neighborhoods have
39% to 45% less tree canopy coverage than other neighborhoods in Massachusetts (MCCA, 2022, Volume II Appendix A, p. A43).
Exploring where environmental justice and other priority
populations are experiencing urban heat islands is essential for developing
equitable, resilient solutions.
Guided Exploration
Looking at demographic data along with information on heat
and land use may provide you with a better sense of which, and where, EJ and Other Priority
Populations in your community lack access to natural infrastructure like shade
trees and parks.
What solutions do these residents suggest for managing heat? If
there haven’t yet been opportunities to connect with community members on this
issue, how can your municipality directly connect and build relationships with
those who might be disproportionately impacted by this climate hazard?
To get an idea of who may be most affected by Heat Islands, open
the GEAR Land Use Map and select a municipality. Turn on the Hot Spots layer under the Climate Hazard Data group and toggle on/off the various layers in the EJ and Other Priority Populations group. You might also
turn on the Forest Land Cover layer under the Land Cover/Land Use group to consider which neighborhoods seem
to lack tree cover and shade.
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Loss of Urban Tree Cover page A43 (top impact Central, Boston Harbor)
As with many climate impacts, urban heat islands affect some
neighborhoods more than others.
According to a US-wide study conducted by The Nature Conservancy, high-income neighborhoods are likely to
have 15% more tree cover and be about 1.5°C cooler than low-income
neighborhoods. The 2022 Massachusetts
Climate Change Assessment found that environmental justice neighborhoods have
39% to 45% less tree canopy coverage than other neighborhoods in Massachusetts (MCCA, 2022, Volume II Appendix A, p. A43).
Exploring where environmental justice and other priority
populations are experiencing urban heat islands is essential for developing
equitable, resilient solutions.
Guided Exploration
Looking at demographic data along with information on heat
and land use may provide you with a better sense of which, and where, EJ and Other Priority
Populations in your community lack access to natural infrastructure like shade
trees and parks.
What solutions do these residents suggest for managing heat? If
there haven’t yet been opportunities to connect with community members on this
issue, how can your municipality directly connect and build relationships with
those who might be disproportionately impacted by this climate hazard?
To get an idea of who may be most affected by Heat Islands, open
the GEAR Land Use Map and select a municipality. Turn on the Hot Spots layer under the Climate Hazard Data group and toggle on/off the various layers in the EJ and Other Priority Populations group. You might also
turn on the Forest Land Cover layer under the Land Cover/Land Use group to consider which neighborhoods seem
to lack tree cover and shade.
Read More About Related Impacts in the Massachusetts Climate Change Assessment:
- Loss of Urban Tree Cover page A43 (top impact Central, Boston Harbor)
Investigate GEAR Map Data Layers
Explore the Land Use map to learn more about how heat may impact different types of land use within your community. The list at the right provides an overview of select data layers included in the map, as well as a detailed description of each layer.
Explore the Land Use map to learn more about how heat may impact different types of land use within your community. The list at the right provides an overview of select data layers included in the map, as well as a detailed description of each layer.
Hot spots are areas with the 5% highest Land Surface Temperature Index values in each RPA region. These areas often have increased energy costs (for cooling), more air pollution, and higher incident of heat-related illness and death.
This subset of the MassGIS 2016 Land Cover/Land Use data shows areas with general residential land use codes and includes a breakdown of single-family and multi-family housing. Multi-unit housing may be more vulnerable to climate impacts because they may be more likely to contain rental units versus owner-occupied units, which limit inhabitants' ability to make updates and retrofits that build resilience. Multi-unit housing units may be more affordably-priced housing for those with limited incomes, such that residents may face financial insecurity and other challenges.
This subset of the MassGIS 2016 Land Cover/Land Use data shows areas with commercial or mixed land use. Commercial areas may be able to provide resources, but if they are affected by a hazard, it may have economic impacts.
This subset of the MassGIS 2016 Land Cover/Land Use data shows areas with industrial land use. Climate impacts on these areas may have economic or ecological implications.
Tree canopy is an important asset in mitigating
climate hazards. As temperatures continue to rise, tree canopies provide shade,
which reduces the land surface temperatures and mitigates urban heat islands.
Wetlands help prevent extreme flood events, act as natural carbon and heat
sinks, while also providing important habitat to plants and animals.
Rivers and streams supply drinking water, power
communities with hydroelectricity, and provide habitat for fish and aquatic
plants. Rivers and streams also provide flood storage during extreme
precipitation events.
The protected and recreational open space datalayer contains the boundaries of conservation lands and outdoor recreational facilities in Massachusetts. This layer identifies whether a property is owned by federal, state, county, municipal, or nonprofit enterprises.
Environmental justice (EJ) populations, i.e., block groups are defined in Chapter 8 of the Acts of 2021 and the 2021 EEA EJ Policy. EJ populations are those segments of the population that EEA has determined to be most at risk of being unaware of or unable to participate in environmental decision-making or to gain access to state environmental resources or are especially vulnerable. 2020 block groups, updated in Nov 2022.
Actions to Consider
Communities can take a range of steps to adapt land use patterns in ways that build resilience to rising temperatures. For more examples, visit the Metropolitan Area Planning Council's Climate Resilient Land Use Strategies, which can be found here.
Communities can take a range of steps to adapt land use patterns in ways that build resilience to rising temperatures. For more examples, visit the Metropolitan Area Planning Council's Climate Resilient Land Use Strategies, which can be found here.
Planting trees provides shade and cooling through evapotranspiration. Trees and vegetation also hold water in the event of heavy precipitation or tidal flooding. This results in less inundation, stormwater runoff, and erosion. Additionally, replacing impervious and degraded surfaces with green space and vegetation can reduce urban heat island effect, while also supporting flood mitigation. Consider ways in which your community can collaborate with city departments and community-based organizations to develop a comprehensive community tree planting program. Eligible communities can take advantage of the Greening the Gateway Cities program.
The MVP 2.0 "Convert Impervious Surface to Community Green Space" Seed Project one-pager contains details and inspiration around this action.
Encourage new development and redevelopment to incorporate green space and natural systems in ways that mitigate heat. These standards could be implemented, for example, through a points-based system whereby developers accrue points based on the integration of natural systems (e.g. plantings, trees, green roofs, green walls, etc.), and where features that have a greater capacity to mitigate heat would receive greater points. See how Somerville, MA is working to incorporate a "Green Score" into their updated zoning ordinances.
Develop new development standards for "cool roofs" (roofs that meet specified solar reflectance standards). Higher solar reflectance means that the material absorbs less heat from the sun, therefore helping to keep temperatures cooler. See how Cambridge, MA is working to incorporate a "Cool Score" into its climate resilience zoning.
Communities can also consider creating a "cool roof" program and pairing the program with green jobs training for installation to create employment opportunities in your municipality. In certain municipalities, an incentive program for property owners to upgrade to cool roofs may also work. Your community may also want to consider "green" or "living roofs," which incorporate plants and gardens on rooftops, and provide an abundance of climate resilience benefits.
Incentivize or require developments over a certain size to incorporate "space of refuge" for climate emergencies. For example, Cambridge, MA requires certain proposed developments to incorporate plans for designated spaces that can serve as shelters during heat and storm emergencies.
Strategically acquire new open space parcels and/or protect existing open space based on the ability of the sites to support community and climate resilience - including heat and flood mitigation, stormwater infiltration and drought prevention, ecological integrity and connectivity, and improving access to open space for communities that will are disproportionately affected by high heat and other climate impacts, such as environmental justice and other priority populations. Work with these groups to identify needs, goals, and priorities for acquiring, protecting, and increasing access to open space.
MassAudubon has designed a scoring system to help communities identify which land parcels need to be prioritized for protection for climate resilience. Explore their Mapping and Prioritizing Parcels for Resilience Project to identify potential sites for strategic land protection in your community. The town of Berlin utilized this tool to identify Horseshoe Pond as a priority for acquisition for climate resilience (MVP FY23 Action Grant). Benefits of this acquisition include protected open space for heat mitigation and recreational access.
See the MVP 2.0 "Resilient Land Acquisition" Seed Project one-pager for more details and ideas.
Launch a participatory mapping process to collectively map public areas in your town or city where community members go to cool off. These areas may include nature preserves, parks and open spaces, public pools and bodies of water, fountains and splash pads, public air-conditioned buildings, and
designated cooling shelters. Collectively identify gaps (areas with very few
cooling sites) and access barriers, which may relate to cost, transportation,
accessibility for varying abilities, hours of operation, or cultural or
language barriers. Work with community stakeholders to expand access to cooling
sites based on community needs and priorities, prioritizing the needs of people
who are disproportionately affected by high heat.
Explore MVP Projects
Explore the MVP-funded projects below:
Explore the MVP-funded projects below:
FY22 Action Grant
$108,500 Award
This project evaluated this highly developed watershed for opportunities to implement nature-based solutions to address any anticipated impacts due to climate change, including urban heat island effect. A multi-pronged stakeholder assessment and field data collection effort was utilized to identify a set of overarching resilience actions to address flooding, urban heat, and provide additional co-benefits using nature-based solutions (NBS). Detailed recommendations were developed at six representative locations throughout the project study areas, as well as an opportunity matrix which scored value and feasibility of various NBS at commercial, residential, and municipal locations across the watershed. The resulting NBS recommendation memos can be used by public and private entities to scope implementation projects.
Project website: Climate Resilient Burlington - Vine Brook Watershed Vulnerability Assessment
Case study: Burlington FY22 Vine Brook Watershed Flood and Urban Heat Island Assessment
FY22 Action Grant
$108,500 Award
This project evaluated this highly developed watershed for opportunities to implement nature-based solutions to address any anticipated impacts due to climate change, including urban heat island effect. A multi-pronged stakeholder assessment and field data collection effort was utilized to identify a set of overarching resilience actions to address flooding, urban heat, and provide additional co-benefits using nature-based solutions (NBS). Detailed recommendations were developed at six representative locations throughout the project study areas, as well as an opportunity matrix which scored value and feasibility of various NBS at commercial, residential, and municipal locations across the watershed. The resulting NBS recommendation memos can be used by public and private entities to scope implementation projects.
Project website: Climate Resilient Burlington - Vine Brook Watershed Vulnerability Assessment
Case study: Burlington FY22 Vine Brook Watershed Flood and Urban Heat Island Assessment
FY19 Action Grant
$99,740 Award
Winthrop worked with the Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC) to conduct a policy scan and audit to draft a new resilient zoning policy and land use tool. Winthrop also worked to further the development of best practices and resources/templates for the municipalities in the Metropolitan Mayors Coalition and designed and implemented a resilient land use planning and zoning training for municipal staff and volunteers.
Learn more: Winthrop FY22 Climate Resilient Land Use and Zoning
FY19 Action Grant
$99,740 Award
Winthrop worked with the Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC) to conduct a policy scan and audit to draft a new resilient zoning policy and land use tool. Winthrop also worked to further the development of best practices and resources/templates for the municipalities in the Metropolitan Mayors Coalition and designed and implemented a resilient land use planning and zoning training for municipal staff and volunteers.
Learn more: Winthrop FY22 Climate Resilient Land Use and Zoning
FY21
MVP Action Grant
$117,760
Award
Athol (FY21) embarked on a project to complete a feasibility study for critical improvements to the Lord Pond Plaza parking lot area. The project will include green infrastructure, shade trees for cooling, green space for stormwater/ flooding mitigation and open space improvements for social benefits. Daylighting a steam that runs under the project site will help restore ecosystem health of the area, as well as providing flood mitigation benefits. The project included a mural competition as part of its stakeholder engagement, and the winning submission is the picture for this case study.
Learn more: Athol FY21 Lord Pond Plaza Improvement Project
FY21
MVP Action Grant
$117,760
Award
Athol (FY21) embarked on a project to complete a feasibility study for critical improvements to the Lord Pond Plaza parking lot area. The project will include green infrastructure, shade trees for cooling, green space for stormwater/ flooding mitigation and open space improvements for social benefits. Daylighting a steam that runs under the project site will help restore ecosystem health of the area, as well as providing flood mitigation benefits. The project included a mural competition as part of its stakeholder engagement, and the winning submission is the picture for this case study.
Learn more: Athol FY21 Lord Pond Plaza Improvement Project
FY21 Action Grant
$117,760 Award
This project was aimed at fundamentally reshaping Holyoke’s relationship with its trees and people. The Urban Forest Equity Plan provided detailed background, established a planning agenda, and set goals for canopy expansion over time. The concurrent Regulatory Review examined policies and ordinances related to tree-friendly practices and made recommendations for changes. The Street Tree Inventory documented all public trees within the project study area, forming the foundation for continued monitoring and maintenance, and provided preliminary data for a “Historic Trees of Holyoke” interpretive map.
Project website: Holyoke Urban Forest Equity Plan
Case study: Holyoke FY21 Urban Forest Equity Plan
FY21 Action Grant
$117,760 Award
This project was aimed at fundamentally reshaping Holyoke’s relationship with its trees and people. The Urban Forest Equity Plan provided detailed background, established a planning agenda, and set goals for canopy expansion over time. The concurrent Regulatory Review examined policies and ordinances related to tree-friendly practices and made recommendations for changes. The Street Tree Inventory documented all public trees within the project study area, forming the foundation for continued monitoring and maintenance, and provided preliminary data for a “Historic Trees of Holyoke” interpretive map.
Project website: Holyoke Urban Forest Equity Plan
Case study: Holyoke FY21 Urban Forest Equity Plan
Related Guides
Explore how the ecosystems found in Massachusetts will be
impacted by heat, and why they should be preserved and restored as part of
climate action and planning because of the services they provide.
Explore how the ecosystems found in Massachusetts will be
impacted by heat, and why they should be preserved and restored as part of
climate action and planning because of the services they provide.
Explore how degraded air quality and other climate impacts
affect human health.
Explore how degraded air quality and other climate impacts
affect human health.